Generally. the election of Gerard of Bologna as prior general in the 1297 General Chapter of Bruges (France) is seen at the beginning of a new era for the Carmelite Order. Thirteenth century Carmel was predominantly eremitical; all its generals had been hermits. The priors general of the subsequent century are doctors of theology and often became bishops. The growth of the intellectual life of the Order was slow: “the primitive dwellers on Mount Carmel were simple hermits, unlettered, poor, they possessed no parchments, nor were they writers. They were more accustomed to pray rather than to write.”
However, formal theological training at universities throughout Europe was required for care of souls. By the end of the 1300s, the Order had houses of study or studia affiliated with the great centers of learning. It also allowed the Carmelites to become involved in some of the disputed questions in these theological centers. A number of distinguished doctors were produced: Gerard of Bologna, Guy Terreni of Perpignan, John Baconthorpe, and Michael Aiguani.
Others become involved in three areas of concern for the Order and its detractors: the origins of the Order; the Order’s approval by the popes; and the Order’s Marian title. The “official” statement about the origin of the Order is the Rubrica prima, a part of the Order’s constitutions, probably written before 1247. Other major works include Speculum (1337) by John de Chemineto and Philip Ribot’s Institution of the First Monks. The Marian foundation of the Order can be found laid out in Rubrica prima, De inception Ordinis, and Baconthorpe’s Speculum de institutione Ordinis pro veneration Beatae Mariae, Tractus super regulam, and Laus religionis carmelitanae.
During the Western Schism (1378-1417), the Black Death (1348-1349), and the Hundred Years War (1337-1453), the Order continued to grow but not as in previous decades. Nevertheless, many new provinces were established throughout Europe.
First Reforms
The General Chapter of 1451 elected John Soreth, considered to be one of the great prior generals of the Order. He attempted to establish reformed houses that were open to it and tried to eliminate abuses and raise the standard of observance in the others. Because Pope Callixtus III confirmed the proposals for the reform of the Order, the movement is called the Callistine Observance. The reform met with success in the Lower German province, as well as to some extent in provinces of Upper Germany, Francia, and Sicily. Blessed Aloysius Rabatà is a product of this reform.
An important feature of John Soreth’s reform instituted the cloistered Carmelite nuns. The papal bull Cum nulla (1452) of Nicholas Vth also extended the spiritual benefits of the Order to its lay members as well. Blessed Joan of Toulouse and Blessed Frances d’Amboise were major proponents of the Carmelite nuns.
Several other efforts were made to reform the Order from within. The Manutuan Congregation originated in the Tuscan Province of the Order, stressing silence and cloister and the common life. A major leader is Blessed Angelus Mazzinghi. Houses included LeSalve (Florence), Mantua and Geronde (Switzerland). The so-called Reform of Monte Oliveto was actually one autonomous house of the Order. Other reforms from outside the Order. The Reform of Albi was established by Cardinal George d’Amboise. He also reformed the studia in Place Maubert (Paris) and Toulouse, the most important stadium in the Order.
Another prior general which lasting influence on the life of the Order was Nicholas Audet from Cyprus. His lengthy term as leader of the Order was a time of renewal unseen since the time of Soreth. His articles of reform, Caput unicum, focused on divine worship, common life, and renewal of houses, with absences outside the cloister no longer permitted, perpetual priorates abolished, the sale of office and academic degrees forbidden, attendance required in the choir and refectory, among many others. Audet also receives some credit for reforms of the Roman Curia under Pope Julius III and Paul III.
Carmel and the Renaissance
The Italian Renaissance one associates with painting, sculpture, literature, and philosophy. North of the Alps philological and religious preoccupations prevail. The Renaissance spirit of the Carmelites shows that same divisions. The Carmine of Florence (Italy) was a center of artistic rebirth its Brancacci Chapel with paintings of Masolino and Filippino Lippi. Fra Filippo Lippi became the Carmine’s most illustrious son with paintings in various churches of Italy, some of which are now in museums. Blessed Baptist Spagnoli of Mantua became a major literary figure—a “second Virgil” according to some. A Belgian Carmelite, Arnold Bostius, became known for his correspondence with the wider humanist circle, including Erasmus, is remember also for his defense of the doctrine of the Immaculate Conception.
Carmel and the Council of Trent
Although the role of Carmel in the ecumenical Council of Trent was modest, the Order was represented at all twenty-five sessions minus one. Although Nicholas Audet was prior general, fifteen Carmelite theologians, although never more than five or six at a time, also contributed to the discussions of the Council. Most of these were Italians. By the third and final session of Trent, Audet was 80 years old and not in good health. John Stephen Facini was appointed his representative, including the right of a definitive vote. Three Carmelites signed the final documents.
